Bacillus thuringiensis

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that can vary in severity across different people.  Positive symptoms of Schizophrenia include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and disorganized behavior, whereas negative symptoms include weak or absent emotion, speech, and socialization.  In order to diagnose an individual with Schizophrenia, two of the previously stated symptoms must be present and the individual must have deteriorated in everyday functioning for at least 6 months.  Researchers believe there may be a genetic link or predisposition to developing Schizophrenia; however, all attempts at identifying single genes have failed.  One new hypothesis behind a genetic predisposition for Schizophrenia is that mutations are arising in our genes that may cause Schizophrenia.  There is also evidence to suggest that damage to certain parts of the prefrontal cortex may cause Schizophrenia.  Even more surprising, however, is this article that found evidence between genes and cannabis use that may cause Schizophrenia.  There are psycho-therapeutic methods that can be used to treat Schizophrenia as well as antipsychotics that can be prescribed as treatment.

This is a video of a documentary done by Oprah on a young girl diagnosed with Schizophrenia:

The Economy of Mood Di$order$

Mood disorders are a group of mental disorders that involve a disturbance of mood.  The most prevalent mood disorders in the U.S. are Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Bipolar Disorder (BD) or Manic Depression.  A survey in 2002 reported that about 5% of adults in the U.S. have a "clinically significant" depression within a given year, and more than 10% do at some point in life.  Since the year 2000, children between the ages of 3+ have been increasingly diagnosed with Bipolar Disorder and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).  In order to combat these disorders, most physicians and psychiatrists alike will prescribe antipsychotics and antidepressants to these adults as well as young children.

Click here to watch a video by Frontline PBS that delves into the horrifying facts and figures about the increased rates of diagnoses and antidepressant prescriptions among children in the U.S.

What really bothers me is that there is hardly enough research to say that antidepressants have a significantly better effect on the individual than the placebo effect, according to many clinical trials.  Moreover, we lack longitudinal research to demonstrate long-term side-effects that may result from the use of these antipsychotics and antidepressants.  In my opinion, economic interests have placed these drugs in the market too soon, but the FDA won't regulate these drugs because they claim there is "insufficient data" to demonstrate any negative side-effects posed by these drugs.

HighLow! How are you feeling?

Emotions are highly varied affective states of consciousness that we experience in different situations.  For example, we might feel angry when someone calls us a derogatory name, or we might feel flooded with excitement after winning the lottery, or extremely depressed after the passing of a loved one.  Emotions are involved in our everyday lives, and yet the exact mechanism behind emotions still hasn't been completely deciphered.  The commonsense view of emotions contends that we experience a frightening situation, experience fear, and then react.  In contrast, the James-Lange Theory states that we exprience the frightening situation, react, and then exprience the fear elicited by the frightening situation.  The reasoning behind the James-Lange Theory is that a feeling is a kind of sensation, and a sensation must be the result of some biochemical change in the body.

Emotions serve many functions, from conferring adaptive advantages to playing significant roles in moral decision-making.  Evolutionarily, fear alerts us to escape from danger, anger directs us to attack an intruder, and disgust tells us to avoid something that might cause illness.  On the other hand, when faced with a difficult task that may involve the lives of others, emotions help us make moral decisions.  For example, say a runaway trolley were about to hit five people on a track, and the only way you could prevent this from happening were to switch the trolley onto another track where it would kill one person.  Would you pull the switch?  In this case, most people with moral fiber would have difficulty answering.  However, research has shown that people with damage to the prefrontal cortex are more likely than average to choose the utilitarian option of killing only one person over five.  The reason for this is that people with damage to the prefrontal cortex often make impulsive decisions and generally don't respond appropriately in emotional situations.

Emotions play a tremendous role in the ways that we live and the functionality of our society.  Try to imagine what our society would look like if we suddenly became more apathetic towards one another.  Looks a bit scary, right?  This past summer, I was taking an online class called Developmental Psychology, and one of my assignments was to observe children in some social setting and type a research proposal based on my observations.  It had to be a group larger than 5 between the ages of about 4-11.  The due date for the assignment was rapidly approaching and I still hadn't managed to find a group of children to observe in a natural social setting.  I thought, "Well, school's out for the summer so I can't just sit in a class and observe children in a classroom, and I wonder what parents might think if I just sat at a park and wrote notes on their children's activities."  The former would've been impossible and the latter seemed really awkward.  The day before the due date and I went to get my car's oil changed at the Toyota dealership in McAllen, and I noticed there was a small group of children (about 6 or 7) playing in a play-pen in the waiting area of the dealership.  "HOW PERFECT!" I thought.  Immediately, I began to take notes from afar and I noticed something peculiar happening.  The children weren't interacting.  They were sitting down on a long stretch of tables against the wall of the play-pen, and it seemed like they were coloring.  I couldn't exactly tell what they were doing until I walked near them on my way to the bathroom.  I realized that the dealership now offered children iPads to play with in the play-pen.  Four of the children in the play-pen were related to each other, and I knew this because they called the same woman "Mom" several times.  The youngest of the four was about 2 years old, and he held onto a bottle in his hand.  He was the only child that wasn't playing on the iPads.  Aside from the iPads, there were all kinds of neat toys and books the children could play with scattered throughout the rest of the play-pen, but the toys remained untouched throughout my entire time at the dealership.  These children were glued to the iPads and hardly ever socialized with one another.  It completely astonished me!  At one point, the 2-year-old fell on the floor and began to sob.  I was surprised to see that none of his older siblings cared to rush over and help him up.  They simply carried on with their game-play on the iPads.  At the end of my observations, I proposed to evaluate the effect of technology on the socio-emotional development of children.  This is an important issue to investigate now that children are being handed iPads by the school districts.  What long-term effects will this intrusion of technology have on the future generations?  Based on my observations, I noticed that the children seemed very desensitized towards one another.  Perhaps we can expect a future generation that is more apathetic/robot-like, unless we come up with a set of rules and regulations for technology use that will prevent any delays in socio-emotional development amongst children.  Researchers have already found ways to optimize people's emotions and learning performance using video-based multimedia material for learning.  Another important piece of research in this field involves 14 case studies of preschool children living in the United Kingdom.  The researchers investigated the effects of learning with technology at home (mobile phones, laptops, televisions, etc.) along with the role of family in young children's learning.  It was found that the children acquired operational skills to understand the functions of different items, such as the mouse, touch screen, etc.  Another finding was that the children developed dispositions to learn such as socio-emotional and cognitive features that facilitate a child's capacity for learning.  Increased self-esteem and confidence were gained from successful learning.  It is important to note that increased self-esteem and confidence are intrapersonal socio-emotional factors, but not interpersonal.  My proposal was to focus on the effects of interpersonal socio-emotional development.  Surely, we can make an effort to improve the interpersonal socio-emotional development of young children being exposed to technological learning instruments during the critical developmental periods of their lives.

Without a doubt, social networks on the Internet have had profound effects on many behaviors, namely suicidal behaviors.  Many children and adults alike have committed suicide over cyber bullying.  This is a prevalent problem in today's society, and increased efforts need to be made to prevent further disruptive cyber behaviors.  On another note, now that data aggregate companies are allowed to pool Internet users' search information for marketing purposes, it is equally important to determine the psychological impact of the advertisements being directed towards Internet users.  For example, a person who searches dietary supplements may already have a negative self-image, and the increased dietary or weight loss ads may either help an individual who is progressively losing weight or completely discourage an individual who is having difficulty losing the excess weight.  Needless to say, further research efforts are needed to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the technological front that continues to advance and change at a rapid pace.

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Emotions are an integral part of our lives.  A vital function of our emotions is to communicate in a way that most other organisms can't, i.e. through empathy.  Life would certainly be vastly different if we lost this aspect of ourselves.  I wonder if we'd still be able to call ourselves humans without emotions.  They are definitely a defining feature of our very existence.  Life would not be the same without happiness, love, sadness, anger, disgust, or fear.  I try my best to keep myself occupied, healthy, and happy.  Though that may be difficult at times, I endure the rough patches and carry on.  Some would call me resilient, but I like to think that I have simply found an abundance of reasons to live for: my family, my friends, and all the perils of the world.  I enjoy helping those in need, and I strive to make other people smile because there is no other feeling I find worthy of my time than my love of joy.

Life is one big battle.
You can either sink or swim.
If you're feeling low and seeking advice all I have to say is: exo malo bonum.
Just keep your chin up with your eyes on the horizon.
The sun always sets before it rises.

Awake in a Dreamland

If you're a busy and driven individual, it's likely that you start your day by waking up, showering, getting dressed, and getting yourself to either work, school, or some meeting.  If you're a lazy, unmotivated individual, it's likely that you start your day by waking up, perhaps hitting the snooze button on your alarm (if you even have one), and going back to sleep until you feel energized enough to wake up again and realize half of the day has gone by and you still haven't even showered.  I'll admit I've had my fair share of both busy and lazy days, but I guess the point I'm trying to drive home is that no matter what type of individual you are, your day starts when you wake up, which means that it must have ended when you fell asleep the night before.  In other words, everyone needs sleep.

Sleep is divided into two phases, non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.  NREM sleep is divided even further into 4 different stages, each with different characteristics: Stage 1—irregular, jagged, low-voltage waves; Stage 2—bursts of 12-14Hz waves of brain activity that last half a second called sleep spindles and K-complexes, which are sharp waves associated with temporary inhibition of neuronal firing; Stages 3 and 4—slow-wave sleep (SWS) noted for decreases in heart rate, breathing rate, and brain activity, while slow, large-amplitude waves become more common across the two stages.  The term REM sleep was derived after the observation of rapid eye movements during this stage of sleep, which was uncharacteristic of the previous stages. Polysomnographs (a combination of EEG and eye-movement records) taken during REM sleep demonstrate irregular, low-voltage waves that indicate increased neuronal activity. Interestingly, REM sleep brain wave activity resembles the brain wave activity that occurs when you're awake. For this reason, scientists argue that most dreaming occurs during REM sleep. REM sleep is associated with more variable heart rates, blood pressures, and breathing rates than NREM Stages 2-4. Curiously, REM sleep is also associated with erections in males and vaginal moistening in females.

This video highlights many of the main physiological functions of sleep and also discusses several reasons for the existence of dreams:

There are many different arguments as to why we have dreams. Some will argue that dreams have played a significant role in creativity across cultures. Others have studied the cultural impressions of dreams as spiritual or supernatural manifestations. And still, many scientists contend with the notion that dreams arise from random brain activity during REM sleep, as depicted in the above video. It is important not to jump to a single conclusion this early in sleep and dream research, however. There is plenty of evidence to suggest that dreams serve many functions, and not just one. In addition, there are many people who report precognition of events during dreams that occur later in life, and I think this also needs further investigation. 

The woman in this video, self-proclaimed to be a psychic, discusses the possibility that dreams may function as foresight or precognition of future events:

If you search any words associated with precognition, dreams, or psychics on Youtube you will find many videos like the one above where people recount their own experiences, many of them fascinating and detailed, and some not much so.  Now, you will probably have to sit and wonder about whether or not you even buy into these ideas, as I did. But if you're feeling adventurous, take some of the following research I've compiled into consideration. 

Many people report having such precognitive experiences during meditation practices as well as dreams.  Some researchers have found that brain activity is actually different during meditation compared to brain activity while you're awake and other modes of meditation. Perhaps people who participate in meditation practices are more prone to such precognitive events than others because they can easily stimulate their brains to activate extrasensory perception (ESP). Even more striking is the finding by another group of researchers on the topic of precognition. Rattet and Bursik (2001) of Suffolk University in Boston found that people with an extraverted intuitive personality type were more likely to experience precognition, so perhaps even personality plays a role in the functions of dreams and the probability that you may acquire precognition through your dreams.

When it comes to scientific inquiry, I believe it is important to keep an open mind to alternative possibilities, even if they sound strange.  Scientists of the new age are beginning to find new ways to test precognition abilities with increasing reliability. Radin (2009) and Bierman & Scholte (2002) have found that brain activity increases just before an emotionally arousing image is presented to their subjects compared to the brain activity recorded prior to the presentation of neutral images. This phenomenon has been termed "presentism," which means that the subjects were able to sense the arousal associated with the emotionally-charged image before the image was presented. These are very interesting findings that are paving a new path for the future of scientific thought and inquiry about precognition and the variable functions that dreams may serve.

Finally, I would like to leave you with a short, yet insightful, poem I wrote about a year ago:

"The Dreamscape"
"Awake In a Dreamland"

Once upon a time,
I roamed God's plain
Of limitless fruit
For the veiled to eat in vain.

Once upon a time,
I believed we were free—
Free to reach;
Free to think;
Free to fly;
...
Free to sink.

Now I lay awake
From a paradise slumber
To realize
It was all just a dream
I was fated to surrender.

—Jose Alexander Zamudio (March 2011)

Sweet dreams! :)

Lock&Key

Sexual intercourse is the stimulating act of reproduction, though reproduction is not a necessary outcome of the act itself.  Sex allows many organisms to exchange their genetic information and create whole new variations of themselves.  Without sex, organisms would likely be less varied and far less complex than they are today.  Since the earliest bacterial life-forms, genetic exchange has been a popular tool for survival through a process called horizontal gene transfer.  In more complex organisms, random assortment of genes in gametes (sex cells) and environmentally selected mutations allow for variation within and across species.

This video will guide you through the basic physiological principles of sexual intercourse:

How did the differences among the sexes arise, you might ask.  Nature has selected for variation, and an inherent consequence of this variation is a division among the sexes: males and females.  Through random assortment of genes, this allows for even further variation in the future offspring.  It appears, however, that variation isn't exactly set on just two distinct sexes, but rather a spectrum of sexes with males and females at opposing ends of the spectrum.  Hermaphrodites, or intersexes, are individuals that fall in the middle range of this spectrum, having varying degrees of both male and female genital characteristics.  With an underestimation of about 1/100 U.S. births resulting in some extent of genital ambiguity, it is possible to say that in today's population there may be well over 3.4 million people walking around with some form of intersex condition.  There are many different roles that genes, hormones, and the environment play on the outcome of a fetus' sex.  The presence of the SRY gene and androgens during the development of the fetus initiates the male pattern of development, but the absence of these factors results in a female pattern of development.  Forger (2006) has demonstrated the significant roles played by hormones that affect the sexual differentiation of brain development.  For example, the introduction of androgens to a fetus during the later part of development may masculinize the brain development of the female that is produced.

The most current and abhorrent affair on the issue of sexual development is the implementation of birth control pills in the New York City School District.  The NYC School District decided it would be a good idea to provide Plan B pills to whichever 13- to 18-year-old female students who "need" it without parental consent.  The Plan B pills typically contain a combination of estradiol and progesterone hormones that prevent the surge of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) during the menstrual cycle.  When FSH and LH are inhibited, the egg is prevented from releasing into the uterus for fertilization and implantation.  I don't agree with this approach to prevent pregnancy in teenage females who are still developing.  Infertility is a rising problem within the United States, according to the CDC. I believe one contributing factor to infertility may be the improper use of birth control.  In this case, the birth control being provided to these still-developing teenagers is affecting the hormone levels in an unnatural manner that may conduce negative long-term effects.  Perhaps a more effective way to combat this situation would be to provide sex education classes and behavioral modification techniques on a community-based level that focus on decreasing risky sexual behaviors amongst these teenagers.  It is also important to be cognizant of the fact that birth control does not prevent the spread of sexually transmitted infections, which pose a greater threat to the health of the future generation.

Here is a video by the ABC News Network that covers more information on the controversy of birth control provided by the NYC School District.  It surprises me that only 2% of the parents have decided to opt their children out of the pilot program for birth control, and my reasoning for thinking this way is rather deductive.  One of the adults interviewed by the ABC journalists in New York stated that these birth control pills condone unprotected sex and add to the problem, rather than solve it.  You would think that more than 2% of the parents of these children would be intelligent enough to arrive at this simple behavioral concept as well.  I think a good number of these parents may still be unaware of this program because their children have purposely chosen not to deliver the information.  It's evident that this information has spread very slowly in that the mainstream news only recently (about a month ago) caught wind of this program, which has been going on for over a year now.

Smelling Memories

What would life be like if we didn't have memory-storage capabilities?  All of our senses rely on our memory to a great extent, and without memory, life would probably be perceived as a chaotic, unpredictable tragedy of fragmented, unrelated events.  Evolution would likely not have been possible to produce the complex life forms that we see today.  Olfaction and pain sensory alone contribute a vast amount of information from the environment to the organism that serves to increase its survival.  It only seems natural that certain events that elicit pain would become associated and imprinted in the organism's memory to prevent such an event from happening again.  The same mechanism would apply for specific scents as well.  For example, we commonly associate certain scents with our surroundings or specific events, such as the aroma of grandmother's house from her terrific cooking or the aversive odor of vomit from that time you ate undercooked chicken.  There is plenty of evidence to suggest that olfaction and pain sensation has evolved across many, if not all, species in order to confer a selective advantage.  Surprisingly enough, even the sperm cells of many organisms find their target ovum through a process of "chemical smelling" called chemotaxis.  Olfaction, apparently, is a prominent part of life even before fertilization.

This video illustrates some of the complexity involved with olfaction and its ties to memory:

Individual differences also play a significant role in the formation of associations between certain scents and memory.  It is important to remember that not everyone may have the same emotion elicited by a specific scent because most people experience different things while immersed in the same scent.

It's interesting to me how different situations can create vastly different consciousnesses.  It's almost as if each of us is meant to peer through every corner of the universe and experience things differently.  Every memory has a smell to it, whether you acknowledge this fact or not.  All of this information is stored in your brain, and for what?  Why so, if we lose it all in the end anyway?  Why do I have to remember that the smell of roses reminds me of the first time I pricked my finger while I was learning gardening techniques from my grandmother?  Does this information only serve a purpose in the time being, or does it go beyond to realms unknown?